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Science Meets Acts Of Learning And Teaching

Strategies for Learning Anything© (Even Golf)
Includes 25 Researched Based Essays On The Nature Of Learning

Written And Compiled By:
Michael Hebron PGA MP CI
Copyright Michael Hebron, 2007, all rights reserved.

“What a service we would render mankind, if we could help people acquire knowledge
(Unconsciously)
Without trying, as if it were by magic.”

-Claude A. Claremont-

To the Scarecrow,
“If you will come to me tomorrow, I will stuff you head with brains. I cannot tell you how to use them; you must find
that out for yourself”
-The Wizard

“There are two ways of being creative. One can sing and dance or one can create an environment in which singers
and dancers flourish.”
- Warren G. Bennis
                        University of South California Sociologist

“I Want to Learn, Please Stop Teaching Me”!
-Mankind’s brain

SUGGESTED MISSION STATEMENT
FOR EFFICIENT LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

HONOR EACH INDIVIDUAL AND THEIR CHOICES

PROMOTE SELF-RELIANCE

STRIVE FOR PERSONAL GROWTH

SUPPORT SELF-UNDERSTANDING AND SELF-ESTEEM

ENCOURAGE CURIOSITY AND IMAGINATION

ENHANCE WHAT ALREADY WORKS

PROVIDE A POSITIVE ENVIRONMENT

AVOID JUDGMENTS AND CORRECTIONS

IMPROVE OBSERVATION SKILLS

SUPPORT SELF DEVELOPMENT, SELF ORGANIZATION, SELF-DISCOVERY

UNCOVER ORDINARY THINGS THAT PRODUCE EXTRAORDINARY RESULTS

TRY FOR EXCELLENCE WITH WHAT YOU HAVE, AND WHAT YOU HAVE IMPROVES

One goal of education is to make learning enjoyable. Students in S.A.F.E. learning environments (free of
judgments and criticisms) will move forward, evaluating the experience after it happens. On the other hand, in
unsafe environments students have concerns before they act. Efficient learning environments motivate individuals
toward higher-order thinking that’s conducive to creativity, in fail-free conditions, producing unforgettable learning.
(Fortunately science is uncovering insights into efficient and non-efficient learning environments.)

Introduction

The advancement of insights into the nature of learning was both the mission and challenge I found myself taking
on in the mid 1980’s. At that time I was content rich and was receiving awards for my work as a teacher. However
when some students who were spending time with me (a perceived award winning expert) were not reaching their
potential, I began to realize that I needed to know more about the nature of how individuals “best” learn. This insight
was the start of a journey that would enhance both the structure and substance of the approach to instruction that I
had been using since 1966 with a more efficient form. I clearly needed more accurate insights into efficient acts of
learning and teaching. The delivery system I was using for transferring information was broken.

“The future of teaching and learning lies in the study of the brain. Only in the strange world of nerve cells and
synapse will we someday untangle the mysteries of how people learn,” Human Brain and Human Learning by Leslie
A. Hart.   Seeing this book as being filled with answers will only diminish its value. It should be seen as a compass
that guides curiosity and self-discovery, not as a map to follow.

Note: “Most contemporary neuro-biologists and cognitive scientists agree: knowledge Eg. operational intelligence (a
Piaget term) or know how is actively constructed by individuals. This view is no longer controversial.”

~Catherine Twomey Fosnot
Professor of Education, C.C. N.Y.

Acts of learning and teaching are certainly two topics worthy of investigation, especially when you consider the
reality that in all walks of life, and in every age group, there are more individuals who do not reach their potential
then do! Research into the nature of learning shows that useful information is often poorly learned, if at all. This
unfortunate statistic has caused leading educators and award-winning scientists to believe many approaches to
learning and teaching in schools, business, and sports should be rethought and redesigned. The rapidly evolving
world of modern science has uncovered insights into the nature of learning that are filled with many non-traditional
and counter intuitive insights, so be forewarned and read on with open mind. It is useful to see all the possibilities in
non-traditional approaches to learning and teaching. What follows may seem like it is taking on some long held
central themes, and it is. The hope here is that counter-intuitive becomes more mainstream.
What follows will discuss the joy of learning anything in the 21st century (even golf). Said another way, what follows
is discussing how all learning is influenced by information delivery systems. Because of what modern science
uncovered during the 1990’s (and is still uncovering), acts of learning and teaching during the 21st century have
the opportunity to be enhanced.   Most sources of information (educators, instructors, employers, coaches,
parents) normally have an acceptable understanding of subject matter content, but many sources lack accurate
insights into the nature of learning information, or the self skills, (including self discovery and self assessment) that
are at its core.
To use the words of John D. Braniford, one of the authors of the book How People Learn, “research into the nature
of learning could be summarized by saying; typical educators and popular instruction approaches routinely violate
what modern science now knows about how most people learn, most efficiently.” For example, studies show that
“learning developing” approaches to progress are different from “teaching fixing” get it right approaches, and this
insight is often overlooked.
When it comes to learning, the design and structure of the approach used for transferring information (the delivery
system) is just as important and some say, more important than the information that is being passed on. Apple’s
Steve Jobs said his basic insight is, “Good design (delivery systems) is actually as important as good technology.”
(Time, 11-2-07) Studies from cognitive science show when how individuals are being asking to learn, takes the
nature of learning into consideration, the depth that exists in surface information, and the width of a general
concept, can be recognized unconsciously without trying. One of the hypothesis of this book is efficient information
delivery systems can guide students in the direction of hearing what is not being said; of seeing what is not being
shown; and of thinking between the line. Said another way, efficient approaches to learning support the
development of critical thinking skills. Efficient approaches for learning are capacity building approaches that focus
on enhancing an individuals’ capacity for learning.
I respectfully suggest that the topic of the nature of learning is one of the most relevant topics we could discuss.
Without accurate insights into how real, or developmental learning takes hold and becomes embedded long-term in
our brain, acts of learning and teaching are normally less efficient than they could be. Of equal importance is what
fragments the kind of learning that lasts.
What follows points out that mankind’s ability to learn through indirect preparation without consciously trying is our
most human asset. At the core of the human races survival throughout history is our ability to learn from both
similar and seemingly unrelated experiences (to what is being learned), without consciously trying, as if by magic.
Our ability to absorb information and skills through indirect preparation, without conscious effort, is at the heart of
reaching optimal potential.
All learning is biological in nature. Biologically it is not possible to learn new information directly in the now without
comparisons to past experiences. Real or developmental learning (the kind of learning that is ongoing) happens
through the steps and stages of parallel processing. During this process new information is simultaneously and
immediately being cross-referenced with past experiences (similar and seemingly unrelated) stored in the brain for
future reference.   Variety is not only the spice of life, it is at the heart of the nature of learning. Random training
learning approaches, or indirect preparation have been found to be more useful than trying to be consistent or
using an exact blueprint. Flexible knowledge and portable skills should be the aim of any approach to learning, and
not trying to get it right or be consistent.
Evolution of thought and discovery are tightly tied to the needs and commitments of those who pursue learning.
What follows suggest alternative approaches for present day thinking about the nature of learning.
Today, some from the business community and the field of education have started to use research from the nature
of learning when they are transferring information. The aim here is to make this practice more wide spread,
especially in sports instruction, where the nature of learning is rarely taken into consideration. Studies show that
“here’s my money, tell me what ‘s wrong, tell me how to fix it” is not an efficient path to progress. Also telling an
individual “that’s the wrong answer” is not as useful as asking them how they arrived at their answer. To shine a
light, not “you have to get it right”, is the aim of learning developing environments.
How does one go from not knowing to knowing? This book is a modest and cautious effort on my part to share
respected research from modern science on the nature of learning, and its influence on reaching ones potential.
Unfortunately in the fast pace result-oriented environments that we live in today, there are approaches to learning
in schools, business, and sports using information delivery systems that are more of a product, than the investment
in individuals they need to be.
I have enjoyed and feel privileged to have been involved with helping individuals make progress since the late 1960’
s. One of the ironies of doing the work of an instructor, is the more one learns, the more one realizes there is more
to know. It now seems to me that the “main responsibility” of an educator, parent, employer, instructor, or coach is
to make the individuals they are interacting with to “feel smart, self-confident, and self-reliant.”
In any environment (schools, business, sports), the transfer of information is at the heart of approaches to learning.
There is also an important common interest that providers and any receivers of information have, which is to have
some meaningful learning taking hold. Studies show meaningful learning requires that the delivery system being
used (books, articles, lectures, personal experiences) takes the nature of learning into consideration first, to be
efficient. When approaches to learning are keenly attuned to the human psyche, there is an intimacy and
connection that leaves a lasting mark.
What has been compiled here will be discussing how the design and structure of a “teaching-fixing” get the right
answer information delivery systems are not only different from “learning-developing” information delivery systems,
but research shows that they provide a lower return on investments of time and resources when it comes to long
term learning. In my view this insight has been undeservedly neglected. It’s by gaining useful insights into efficient
delivery systems that both providers and receivers of information become more efficient. Readers who are mental
explorers, those who are open to counter intuitive insights, may gain more from this book then readers who are less
curious about what modern science is uncovering about the acts of learning, self discovery and self assessment.
The publishing industry has produced thousands of books, videos, and articles that contain subject matter
information, but few on the topic of learning information. This book is presenting meaningful insights from modern
science into the nature of learning and how one “best” goes from unskilled to skilled, or from poor habits to useful
outcomes. The research into this topic has made some eye opening suggestions for both givers and receivers of
information. When individuals are not learning at an acceptable pace, it’s the delivery system that needs more
education, not the individuals.
The U.S. Office of Education Research And Improvement – and several other research centers point to several
incorrect assumptions about learning including:
1.        Assuming what matters is getting the right answer.
2.        Assuming new skills can be acquired impendent of their context.
3.        Assuming people will predictably transfer learning to new or different situations.
4.        Assuming students are empty vessels and have to be told how to do things.
5.        Assuming learning happens because of a bond between stimuli and correct answers.
6.        Assuming details are more important than general concepts.
Any accuracy of detailed information, or attempts to “get it right,” at the cost of its application, accessibility, and
usefulness, lowers learning potential. The more we reduce the information and details in our ideas, the greater the
return and retention becomes. Research shows that general, just an in the ballpark concept or general description
is more useful for learning than a long list of exact details. “We need education in the obvious, more than
investigation of the obscure.” Oliver Wendell Holmes (p37 “Owner’s Manual for the Brain.”)
I was slow to realize that an efficient delivery systems is more valuable than the information being shared when it
comes to developing long-term learning. Following directions or restating facts does not require the steps of
processing, synthesis, and evaluation, which are all important elements of the nature of learning and developing
knowledge that is personal in nature.
Mankind’s brain and the skills of learning, can only improve and become more efficient as the circumstances and
environment of a delivery system permit. Sound studies have shown its experiences, and investigation that grow
skills and intelligence more efficiently than dogma. Unfortunately, in some corners there seems to be a lack of
interest in discovering more about the nature of learning, but we do have our daily fill of re-analysis of previous
information and a cataloging of many anecdotal facts, details, and opinions. (Especially in sports instruction)
Harvard’s Lawrence Hooper said, “The ultimate source of exceptional performance is exceptional learning.
Therefore, the question is how can we best produce exceptional learning.” I now realize that any attempt to educate
that does not take the nature of learning into consideration first, – will be less efficient than it could be. A research
based approach to efficient learning is free of negative judgments that are attempting to change poor grades and
fix poor habits. It is using the positive steps of self assessment for improving learning potential. It’s only after ones
learning potential improves that ones performance potential can improve. A master of anything was first a master of
learning. To enhance learning potential (not fix poor outcomes) by influencing individuals in positive ways, avoiding
negative corrections and judgments, in the focus here.
Advancing a potential for learning requires insights into supporting the dignity of the individual student. Enhancing
such dignity enforces the influence individuals will have over their own life. America was to be the land of a free and
independent will, where one could accomplish their own visions. When organized formal approaches to education
started to use controlling acts of teaching, this often birthed non-thinking students who no longer felt free to
explore, discover, and invent by linking brilliant deductions and accidental discoveries. Free will allows individuals
to invest in themselves, as they gain an education through and for using improvisational and spontaneous thinking
in ever-changing real world environments. This kind of education cannot be given, but it can be gained through the
free will of using self-skills including, self-discovery and self-assessment. Freedom in all its facets preserves the
very foundation upon which curiosity, observations, and learning thrive. Relevant learning, meaningful progress,
and long term development support the dignity of a human beings self-image and grows their self-reliance skills.
This is not a new reality, but only a return to what has always existed at the core of fully experiencing what it means
to be a human being, and not a human follower. Following directions is a lower brain activity that does not engage
the higher cortex of the brain, where new learning takes place.
The biology that influences life is an automatic process; learning is also an automatic biological process that takes
hold without consciously trying. But learning is by no means something that happens by itself. In today’s world there
are conditions that will conspire against a human beings natural ability to learn golf, or anything else. The
disciplinary and controlling boundaries of “teaching-fixing”, get the right answer approaches to learning can
fragment the biologically programmed instincts that unfold the expressions of an individuals uniqueness for learning
without trying.
Despite the efforts of well meaning educators, parents, coaches, employers and instructors, many individuals who
are trying to learn are struggling. My hope is what has been compiled here will cause some rethinking and new
conversations about the nature of learning, memory, and critical thinking.
Questions provide an opportunity to learn. What follows is questioning the theoretical foundations on which many
current approaches to teaching, coaching and education rest. These approaches to learning often overlook a
human beings capacity for gaining “know how,” (or “operational intelligence”, a Piaget term) without consciously
trying to learn.
When I was compiling the research and other information for this book, there were several overlapping audiences in
mind. It was written for anyone who was frustrated when learning, and lost interest. It was also written for individuals
who are not happy with their current pace of progress, and for anyone who believes how they are being asked to
learns seems complicated. Any parent, educator, employer, coach, or instructor who is interested in creating an
effective delivery system for sharing information, should find the research here useful.
“Accurate insights into the science of learning will involve understanding not only that learning occurs, but also
understanding how and why it occurs.”- (Gopnik, Meltzoff, Kuhl, 1999) p.20 The Learning Science.

What follows is based on a journey I am still on, one that has revealed many unexpected insights into human nature
and the nature of learning. It has been eye opening learning experience that started on a warm spring morning in
the mid 1980’s. That morning my mind (as it normally is) was on the students who would be spending time with me
that day, but from a very different view than in the past. I also found my thoughts traveling back to all of the
students who had spent time with me since 1966, the first year I began teaching, a term I know longer use, replaced
by “learnist.” In efficient learning environments I now see educators and students as “learnists,” much like chemistry
has chemists, and biology has biologists. Looking back, it seems that there were always some individuals who were
not reaching what I believed to be their potential. At the time I did not realize that these students were just
experiencing a learning delay, and were not lacking the ability to improve. I have learned from cognitive science
studies that learning delays often occur in “teaching-fixing” approaches to progress that focus on “getting it right.”
This true but counterintuitive insight describes the approach to teaching I was using for over 20 years. I am now
aware any information delivery system that is trying to teach, is very different and less efficient than a delivery
system that is helping someone to learn. In “teaching-fixing” approaches to learning a student would hear “wrong”
to the answer 2+2=5. A “learning developing” approach to learning would help individuals investigate how they
arrived at this answer.
I am not exactly sure what caused my curiosity to ask a why question of myself that morning; why were seemingly
capable human beings from the most intelligent species to inhabit the earth not reaching their potential? This
question birthed a personal ah! moment, a gift from somewhere, that would change both my overall thinking about
teaching, and my professional life. I have never seen myself as a perfect teacher. But with the help of leading
educators and award winning scientists I would discover that there are perfect learners, they called human beings
and that we are all designed to succeed and thrive, and not to fail (we are not designed to fail tests or miss putts in
golf). I have also been made aware that because we are all designed for survival, humans have the capacity to
learn without consciously trying to learn (After we learn, we simultaneously teach ourselves based on past
experiences). Mankind is actually designed to learn first, and then, teach ourselves to use what we have learned.
For example, after we learn that an animal is dangerous, we then teach ourselves to either avoid, hunt, or flee what
is a threat to our survival. After we self-discover that balls roll slower going up hill than down hill, we then teach
ourselves to make adjustments. Unfortunately some approaches to learning are using a delivery system that is
trying to teach first, hoping that individuals will then learn.

A non-efficient information delivery system often fragments an individual’s ability to make progress and they start to
believe that learning is hard, becoming disappointed in their pace of progress. A delivery system (source of
information) and the brains information processing system are elements of learning. How information is being
delivered will have a direct influence on how and what information will be processed and stored in our brain.
Accurate insights into efficient and non-efficient delivery systems are a powerful resource for creating effective acts
of learning and teaching. What follows does not attempt to cover every topic of research in the fields of learning
and teaching. The aim here is to provide a wide view of current research while at the same time move beyond just a
superficial treatment of these important topics. In the book Human Brian and Human Learning, by Leslie A. Hart, Dr
Paul D. Maclean writes, “An interest in the brain requires no justification other than a curiosity to know where we are
going.”

“What do we have to know, to be in the know?” is what Allen Watts asked on his book, The Book. Is learning and
making progress a mystery when it occurs? Do most individuals who see the progress that others are making
believe they have accurate insights into why? Or is progress only a mystery when it does not exist? One of the
several hypothesis in this presentation is the notion; often those who believe they are making progress and those
who believe they are not, have misconceptions about the reasons and cause for the results they are experiencing.
“What do we have to know to be in the know?” Realizing that we are perfect self learners and perfect self teachers
without consciously trying, is how being in the know starts.
The gateway to learning is our brain and having just a layman’s understanding of how they brain best learns is an
important first step in the direction of efficient acts of learning and teaching. These insights are especially useful for
reaching our optimum potential as a student, educator, employer, parent, coach, or instructor. When
developmental learning is the aim of any information delivery system, “keeping the brain in mind” is the suggestion
that Eric Jenson and other leading educators and scientists promote.
Are most individuals learning in ways that help them gain enough authentic comprehension of their environment
and subject matter? Studies show many individuals are being asked to learn in ways that do not promote authentic
insights into the “meaning” and “content” of the basic core information pertaining to subject matter. Developmental
learning, or real learning is grounded in the “meaning” of things, not in the name of things. Studies show efficient
learning in mostly autobiographical in nature, supported by improvisational and spontaneous thoughts and actions.
Efficient learning environment are guiding individuals in the direction of inventing their own skills and developing
their own meaning of information. New research has demonstrated that teaching to learning styles is not as useful
(as it was once thought to be) for long term learning as educating for a meaning that’s personal in nature (these
studies will be discussed later).

What is at the heart of productive learning and meaningful change? When individuals are not making progress and
not learning at an acceptable rate, what is missing, or what is blocking progress? What begins the process of
meaningful change for individuals who are experiencing a learning delay? The short answer is to change the
approach to learning that is being used. These are a few of the questions that will be discussed here.
The thesis of this presentation is to help both givers and receivers of information acquire personal grasp of the
nature of learning and efficient information delivery systems. Said another way, hopefully what followers will help
readers acquire are accurate insights for keeping the brain in mind when learning and teaching. I suspect that
many students and teachers (receivers and givers of information) do not have accurate insights into the
consequences of overlooking the nature of learning during attempts to make progress.
The goal here is not so much to popularize the nature of learning, as it is to cause some rethinking into why it is
being overlooked by information delivery systems in schools, business seminars, sports instruction, and in homes.
During the 1990’s, a full range of human experiences, including the nature of brain based learning were the subject
of intense scientific investigation. It was during these years that researchers devoted considerable effort and
started to uncover more about the brain than at any other time in the history of research. Neuroscientists all over
the world were mapping the brain to learn more about the neural basis for learning and other human experiences.
These studies also investigated the components that make up delivery systems for transferring information. e.g.;
the design, structure, and organization of efficient and non-efficient learning environments. As Michael Porter said,
“it’s structure that dictates conduct and performance, basically if your design is weak, that is what you get.”   What
has been compiled here is a summarization of insights from science. It’s an invitation to have a look inside the brain
to see how learning is done. It’s a humble attempt to gather information that can enhance learning anything, even
golf. One of a human being’s most natural and most human act is an act of learning, and this insight is often
undervalued and overlooked. Learning and gaining an education are a part of man’s essence for survival. Learning
is at the core of living ones life, and living ones life is at the core of learning. (The ultimate oxymoron).
It seems we could say that the enterprise of learning and knowing has two categories (1) encoding information, (2)
and then developing “know how” skills, or operational intelligence through personal deductions, reasoning, and
adaptation for using information. Said another way, learning becomes knowing through the process of thinking for
the future, based on past experiences. To improve ones ability to predict outcomes by using past experiences to
develop flexible knowledge and portable skills is the goal here. Developing the “know how,” or operational
intelligence of using information for problem solving in real world environments will unconsciously grow knowledge
that’s personal in nature. Going to school, attending a business seminar, or taking a lesson is not the same as
becoming educated through self-discovery and self-assessment.
At the essence of learning is change. Hopefully it is the kind of change that helps individuals become more
observant and curious beings. Curiosity and observation skills are at the core of efficient problem-solving and long-
term learning. William Crain – Noted psychology professor, “You simulate mental development by increasing
curiosity and powers of observation.” Unfortunately because learning and change are synonymous some believe
change requires trying fixing poor outcomes, or trying to “get it right.” But studies show that both these approaches
to learning actually slows down progress. Fixing isn’t learning, and trying to get it right creates the kind of stress
that fragments progress.
Some questions that will be discussed here include:
·        What skills and insights are necessary for pro-active learning and teaching?
·        Do fail free approaches for learning exist?
·        Is unforgettable learning available?
·        What allows intelligence to emerge from non-intelligence?
·        What is different about a “teaching-fixing” get the right answer approach to “learning, and a learning-
developing” approach?
·        How does one go from not knowing to knowing?
·        What allows lessons provided to become lessons learned?
·        What can transform information into “know how,” or operational intelligence.
·        How does our gateway to learning, (our brain), decide what to retain and what to put aside and forget?
·        What is the most efficient delivery system for making lessons useful beyond classrooms, business seminars,
and sports practice fields?

Before revisiting the start of the journey I am still on, here is a true story about not having an open mind when
learning. Early in his career as a research physicist at the Bell Lab, the head of the Applied Physics Department at
Yale University, Dr. Robert Grober, made a discovery that was in conflict with a long held belief. Whenever he
discussed his new discovery during seminars, his findings were often met with heated resistance and arguments.
Dr. Grober told me for years whenever he would meet individuals who had attended one of the seminars, they
would recall the arguments over his discovery more easily than the facts he shared about his important research,
that were in conflict with previous held belief systems.
What follows here was not compiled start arguments or upset the apple cart of anyone’s current belief system.
Hopefully what has been complied here will create some rethinking of ideas about learning and teaching with
creative open minds. Open minds birth progress that lasts. On the other hand, closed minds and a belief system
that resists change can fragment the kind of long term learning we all are capable of.
It’s a fact of life that some views will always be in disagreement with other views, and if what follows about acts of
learning and teaching is going to be disagreed with, keep in mind most of it has been accepted by sound science.
These new insights from respected research have inspired me to rethink and change the less than efficient delivery
system that I was using for the first 20 years I was teaching.
It’s been said what we do not know can’t hurt us. But it is what we believe in, that is not true, that blocks progress.
What is currently known is always a moving target that active open minds can travel with. It is best to see what has
been compelled here as a flexible framework for developing useful insights into efficient and non-efficient acts of
learning and teaching. A framework that readers can use as a gathering point for combining their current ideas with
points of views from respected research.
Now back to the start of my journey on that warm spring morning in the mid 1980s. For almost two decades others
were making the observation that I was growing and making progress as a teacher. I was being invited to speak
and give workshops for students and other teachers throughout the Untied States, in several countries in Europe,
throughout Canada, and in Japan. I was writing books and articles for magazines and newspapers. I also received
two of my associations’ highest national awards, Teacher of the Year and the Horton Smith Trophy for what others
believed were worthwhile contributions to my profession’s continuing education programs (which because of what I
have been learning about the nature of learning would be different contributions today). But on that morning, I
came to realize there was a huge void in the approach to the teaching method I was using. Something important
and meaningful was clearly missing, and in my view it was causing learning delays for some of the individuals who
were spending time with me. In 2001 I was a guest on the Charlie Rose Show, in 2006 I was invited to speak at MIT,
and in 2007 at Yale about the nature of learning, or what insights were missing from my approach to teaching for 20
years.
Because of the generosity and help from others in my profession, by the mid 1980’s I had compiled a long list of
subject matter information, and many seemingly important details that made up the foundation of what I was then
sharing with students and other teachers all over the world. To some, I was naively being perceived as an expert,
which was unfortunate. There really are no experts; we only have the opportunity to share our own experiences
with others.
Years later, as I look back from a different point of view, I was receiving awards and recognition for what many in my
profession and other fields of education believed (and still do) is an effective approach to teaching which is: A
teacher’s delivery system should be filled with lots of subject matter information, rich in details, corrections,
judgments, and “how to” directions. This is an accurate description of my past approach to instruction. It was an
approach that was content rich, often out of context and clearly nature of learning poor. For almost 20 years, I had
few, if any insights into how individuals actually “best” learn. Said another way, I had no accurate insights into the
nature of brain-based learning, but was receiving awards for my work as a teacher. As I said, I now realize any
approach to teaching that expect to be efficient must take the nature of learning information into consideration
first.   What has been compiled here should be seen a compass that guides a readers curiosity, not as a map to
follow. Seeing what follows as filled with answers will make it less useful then if it inspires meaningful questions and
rethinking of some long held misconceptions.
Unfortunately:
I was slow to learn that students and the environment are the real educators – both are providing a continuing
education for themselves and instructors.
I was giving out information – I was not helping individuals to find and invent their own knowledge base.
I was slow to learn that having preconceived ideas about students, or answers for them slows progress.
I was subject content oriented – I was not the process of learning oriented.
I was a teacher – I was not being an educator.
I was in charge – I was not a collaborator.
I was giving answers – I was overlooking the value of self-discovery and more importantly, what students already
know.
I was pointing out poor habits and failures – I did not recognize that there is no failure, only useable feedback.
I was trying to fix poor habits – I was not helping to change poor insights.
I was just reacting to poor outcomes - I was not providing a pro-active learning experience.
I was trying to teach a subject, I was not supporting a journey to self-reliance through self-discovery.
I was trying to teach details using expert models, I was not using a learning model consisting of general, non-
specific, just in the ballpark concepts.
I was giving commands and using drills, I was not providing guidelines.
I was trying to improve performance, I was not helping to enhance learning potential.
I was slow to realize that a lesson is an opportunity to experiment, not a time to “get it right.”
All elements of the nature of learning are straightforward, not difficult to grasp, and they can be broadly applied to
any subject and in all real world environments. When unsatisfied with the rate of progress in any learning
environment (schools, businesses, sports, in homes) perhaps what follows should be seen as a well-informed
gentile coaxing to use what may seem counterintuitive. When learning, individuals can improve the quality of
outcomes by enhancing their insights about the brain and how it best learns and interacts with the environment. For
both givers and receivers of information, when the pace of progress is not what was expected, what follows provides
some food for thought based on substantive research. When progress is not what’s expected, individuals tend to
look for more information, instead of asking “Is there a different way to go about learning this?” To which research
into the nature of learning would respond, yes, more efficient approaches to learning have been uncovered.
For educators, parents, employers, coaches, or instructors to have an interest in the nature of learning is having a
basic interest in humanity. Acts of learning are that primal (this view was inspired by William Gibson’s writings).
Learning and teaching are clearly social events, and when the implications of this insight are not taken into
consideration, learning can be fragmented. Every component of acceptable positive social interactions can
enhance acts of learning and teaching.
The core of what is being presented here is found mainly in the generosity, encouragement, and support of many
award-winning educators and scientists, and their research. I thank all of them for helping me gain insights into self-
discovery brain-based learning. When it comes to learning, as Jeff Hawkins, author of On Intelligence, and creator
of the Palm Pilot said, “You are your brain.” Many of the useful insights I’ve gained over the last two decades about
the nature of learning as I’ve said, are non-traditional and in opposition to many long held bias thoughts about
teaching. What I have been learning about education and teaching has been mind-opening and much different from
what I was doing for the first 20 years of my career as a teacher, during a time when my industry was saying I was
one of their top teachers. But Steven Pinker of M.I.T, Howard Gardner of Harvard, Allan R. Wagner of Yale, Mihaly
Cziksentmihalyi of the University of Chicago and Thomas Bailey of Columbia University Teaching College would
have said of my work at that time – “Teacher yes – educator no.” My delivery system for sharing information was
less than it could have been, because it was not taking the nature of learning into consideration.
Individuals who want to learn, often do things that slow down progress. Note: No one can hurt or help you as much
as your own mind set. What unifying learning experience can meet the needs of all the diverse segments of our
society? The answer offered here is, approaches to learning that flow through “the self.” It seems that efficient
approaches to progress develop individuals who become eager, self-confident, self-motivated, self-sufficient
learners. These approaches develop individuals who are self-reliant independent thinkers, curious self-evaluators,
who are gaining self-knowledge, reaching their potential with creative open minds.

In the book “The Best Advice Ever For Teachers” Jane Leach states “The job description of an educator is to help
individuals gain knowledge” – and in another book, “Society and the Teacher’s Role” Frank Taylor said, “people
expect teachers to teach.” To which I say – That’s unfortunate! On face value, these two statements may appear to
be saying the same thing, but they are not in the view of the following hypothesis. Information that is geared for
helping individuals is not as useful as information that is geared for helping individuals to help themselves. These
are two different delivery systems.
The first statement by Leach is talking about helping students gain and develop their own knowledge. The second
one by Taylor is talking about teachers giving students information. One statement is about guiding self-discovery;
the other statement is about providing information
The Mission Statement given here was developed over time. I am now aware that real or developmental learning is
founded more on curiosity, imagination and critical thinking then on dogma, “how to” directions, or corrections from
a perceived expert. To open our minds to all the possibilities revealed in the previous sentence is one of the aims of
what is being shared here. I have learned that, “Here’s my money, tell me what is wrong, then tell me what to do,” is
a poor, ineffective approach to the kind of learning that can last.. Research by award winning educators Caine and
Caine points out that, “how individuals learn, often is never examined by a vast number of educators or the public.”
When it comes to learning, what’s inside any individual can be more powerful than what an outside source of
information is sharing. Human beings, we could say are made up of lots neat stuff—sight, hearing, feeling, balance,
memory, emotions, strength, past experiences, reasoning powers, deduction skills, wit, and individuals should be
putting them all to use when learning. Drawing out what an individual already knows is at the heart of the kind of
learning that can last. I call this “out-struction,” I have found is more powerful than “in-struction,” or following “how-
to” directions.
I have written several books and “To be continued” is how I ended my last one. This presentation will also end with
“To be continued,” for we never know what the future holds. Much of what is being put forward here was not
available before the late 1980’s. The 1990’s has been referred to as the Decade of the Brain. It was during these
years that scientists and educators learned more about the brain, (our gateway to learning) than in any other time
in the history of research. We now know there are some “keys” to a delivery system that supports efficient learning
and teaching that were overlooked in the past. For example. studies show up to 95% of what we have learned was
without consciously trying.
The origin of what has been compiled and written here about approaches to learning is a combination of many
valuable studies from cognitive science, insights from evolutionary biology, other fields of study, and my 20 years of
practical application of what I have learned from respected research about the nature of learning. It has been
demonstrated that the use of drills and expert models is not as useful as a random, ever changing active learning
experiences during initial learning.
Note: Acts of efficient self-discovery learning existed long before acts of teaching, or organized formal approaches
to education. Research from cognitive science points out that human beings are not designed to follow directions.
We are all human beings, not human followers. Following directions is lower brain activity. It is a passive approach
to progress, and is not as efficient as active learning approaches that give students choices while engaging self
discovery, self assessment and self development, to name a few of the “self skills” that are at the core of the nature
of learning (There are over three pages of “self” definitions in Webster’s Dictionary).Again, sound studies from
cognitive studies have shown that “teaching – fixing” get the right answer approaches to progress give a lower
return on the investment of time and resources than learning developing approaches.
Now that the delivery system I use is no longer based on a “teaching-fixing”, get the right answer approach, the
students I spend time with are learning faster and retaining information and skills longer. How I share information
with students and other teachers today is different from how I was sharing ideas in the late 1960’s to the mid 1980’
s. My delivery system is now influenced by the nature of learning.
Efficient approaches to progress are doing enough so that individuals feel they will learn, but not so much that
students do not take responsibility for their own learning. Self discovery and self assessment learning are not
about going it on your own, it’s about being given the opportunity to make your own decisions and choices. Efficient
delivery systems use approaches to learning that avoid judgments and provide individuals with choices. Trying to
following directions from a perceived expert can create the kind of stress that slows progress. When individuals
think “Am I doing this right?”, worry replaces clear thinking. Looking back into the history of mankind, was the first
ever exchange of advice asked for, or given without being requested? It is my assumption that the first ever advice
was probably given without being asked for, slowing down progress. A picture is worth a thousand words. Yes, but
only when someone else’s words do not attempt to describe it.
The researched based model for learning given in the How The Brain Learns by Dr. David A Sausa PhD recognizes
that developmental learning is an interactive and not a passive process that has individuals following directions.
Today’s active learning models from the science of learning are sufficiently flexible to adjust to any new findings
about the nature of learning as are revealed. (p 38). These models deal with 1) collecting, 2) storing, and 3)
remembering information and skills; the three major cerebral operations most useful to both givers and receivers of
information. These models show that learning starts with stimulus from the environment (the shot about to be
played in golf) and includes other factors that will determine if our senses will reject or accept information for future
reference. These models also shows the inescapable, and important impact that personal experiences from the
past, and also a students self image have on what is likely to be stored for future learning (p 39). Note: new learning
is the third piece of information to be encoded by the brain. The safety of the environment and the emotional
conditions are evaluated, with new learning is being encoded last.
Dr. Sausa points out, because of the many clues science has been yielding about the nature of learning, it would be
useful to recognize how important these clues can be to educators, parents, employers, and sports coaches (p 3).
Today we are fortunate to have useful research-based rationale for why certain instruction strategies should be
considered (p 2). Insights into how the human brain operates can help educators to develop, design, structure, and
organize delivery systms for providing information so that students are more likely to gain meaning, and recall
useful content. Individuals who are learning can also benefit from gaining insights into how the brain operates
during learning (p 39). (When I use the term educator, it’s meant to include parents, employers, coaches, trainers,
instructors, as well as professional educators on all levels of education).

Over time the responsibilities and goals of approaches to education have been defined from many different points
of view. Perhaps if all those views could be seen as having just one purpose, that purpose would be; individuals
should be educated to become self-sufficient.

Educators, parents, employers, coaches and instructors all hope that the messages they are sharing will prepare
individuals for being self-reliant with the ability to make useful independent choices. The conditions in which these
future choices will take place in are subject to change and therefore are unknown to both givers and receivers of
information. Because these future choices will be made in environments that are subject to change, individuals
should be trained and educated in a manner that prepares them not to be exact, but to be spontaneous,
improvisational, and creative in their application of basic core information. The goal is flexible knowledge, portable
skills.
The computer industry is presently focusing on the optimization of search engines and critical thinking appears to
be the brains’ search engine. Critical thinking is at the heart of the kind thinking that’s spontaneous,
improvisational, and creative, unconsciously uncovering what was previously encoded from past experiences.
Trying to teach, I would discover, is not the same as helping individuals to learn. Theories of education often carry
the seeds of their own destruction. When an educator tries to fix a poor habit, unwanted outcomes, or an incorrect
answer, they can win or lose. But when you help a student, you always win (It is also true that when golf instruction
tries to fix a poor habit, you can win or lose, but when you help a golfer you always win). It seems that efficient
approaches to learning are geared for enhancing a students’ learning potential, and only after learning potential
improves, can performance potential improve.
Again, a master of anything was first a master of learning. As Harvard’s’ Laurence Hopper said, “The ultimate
source of exceptional performance is exceptional learning.” Studies show that the kind of learning that lasts is
encoded by recognizing what to do, or what is required, while avoiding “how to” directions and thoughts about fixing
a poor outcome. This counterintuitive insight often gets overlooked. When approaches to learning are just a
reaction to a poor outcome, they are not a proactive learning experience.
We could say the nature of learning has a yin and a yang. The yin from day one: nature’s plan for the human race
was for mankind to evolve, survive, succeed, and not to fail. The yang is: because we are all designed to succeed,
we have the ability to learn without consciously trying to learn. Studies show that all learning is based on indirect
preparation. Biologically it’s not possible to learn anything directly. Efficient learning is grounded in the steps of
unconsciously parallel processing new information with past experiences. (These two elements of the nature of
learning will be discussed in more detail later).
What I am sharing here is a reflection of my 40 plus years as an instructor, with the emphasis on the last two
decades when I was linking findings about the nature of learning with basic subject matter information for real world
application beyond classrooms, seminars and sports practice fields. Guided or not by a supreme being, (depending
on your view) nature has passed on to mankind’s brain and body the capacity to train themselves. After we become
aware (learn), in safe, not judgmental environments, we also have the capacity to instantly and simultaneously
teach ourselves to use what we are learning, there by turning information into knowledge. This is done though the
use of our self-skills including self-discovery, self-development, self-assessment, and self-confidence to name a
few. It has been found that the judgments and criticisms that take place in some teaching environments stifle
motivation, diminish creativity, create a negative influence on self-image, and can turn the joy of learning into
drudgery.
What’s being said here should be seen as a conversation (not as an argument) that’s sharing what I have
experienced and learned about personal development and the biological genesis of the kind of learning that’s
productive and enjoyable. Reasoning, decision-making, and learning are all biological in their origin, and this
connection should not be overlooked if approaches to learning expect to be efficient. As David Brooks said, “We
are all to some large extent strangers to ourselves, unaware of how we make the decisions that shaper our lives.”
(NY Times 01/16/2005 book review p.13)
As was said, many of the studies that are referenced here were not available prior to 1990 and in his book, Inside
the Brain, Ronald Kotulak points out, “We did not know that the brain was a self-organizing organ. We did not know
that music is natures version of a free lunch, because it exercises the same neural network we use for learning and
memory, making it easier to become smarter. We did not know the effect of environmental deprivation (i.e. a lack of
interactions with the environment) is just as physical, as a blow on the head. Knowledge about the brain is doubling
every ten years. The Society for Neuroscience was formed in 1969 with 500 members. Today its membership is
close to 30,000.”
The Origin of Learning
What causes learning? What is the origin of learning? Perhaps we could say the origin of efficient learning is a
human being’s basic will to survive. This will to survive enhances “the self” found in self-discovery, self-
development, self-assessment, self-confidence, self-etc. How human beings operate is also influenced by chemicals
produced by our bodies and brain. When discussing the origin of learning, the chemicals produced by our system
could be seen as partners with and at the core of acts of learning (Some chemicals support learning, others make
learning difficult).
What approach to learning can help to transform information from its source (books, magazines, teachers, or
experiences, etc) into knowledge that is personal in nature for use in real world environments? How does one go
from not knowing to knowing? Some research points to the “intelligence of play” (a term Chuck Hogan, author of
several useful books on skill development, uses) which is at the core of critical thinking and developmental learning.
Play never tries to memorize – but has wonderful long – term memory.
Play never has failure, only feedback, that’s never wrong.
Play does not try to be exact, but often is.
Play does not rely on directions, but always gets to its destination.
Play tries what’s new and different, and has little fear.
Play takes risks (learning requires risks) but is never anxious.
Play has many Ah! Moments that last forever.
Play happens in safe environments. (Learning requires a safe environment where outcomes are not being
corrected by others).
Smart classrooms keep students on task, and simultaneously stimulates curiosity that is embedding norms. In smart
classrooms both the giver and receiver of information are on journey of discovery together, where the expected
comes from the unexpected. In these kind of classrooms misconceptions can be transformed into useful insights
during adventures of self-discovery and self-assessment. These kind of insights construct a foundation of core-
information from which we can gain knowledge or the “know how” of operational intelligence, (a Piaget term). In
smart classrooms – genetics and available learning opportunities flow through each other and become one. Again,
“Smart” means Students’ Minds Are Really Talented. Information is different from knowledge. When the “know how”
of putting to use information in ever changing real world environments is being developed – information is in the
process of becoming flexible knowledge and portable skills for use beyond classrooms, practice fields, and business
seminars.
The Mind – Brain is always ready to learn – but this readiness can be fragmented and moves individuals off task in
“teaching fixing” – get it right environments.
In “learning-developing” environments mentors and guides help individuals by supporting the kind of student self-
evaluation that can monitor performance, keeping students interested and on task. When it comes to learning,
interest is more valuable than fun. During the natural up and downs of a learning curve, when approaches to
progress allow learning to be interesting, individuals will stay engaged when progress is slow, with fun following
interest.
Some components of learning are: emotional, social, cognitive, physicals, and reflective. Note: All five function
simultaneously. No components can be completely turned off. Each components actions affect all the others as part
of the whole. Every question or problem touches all components.

Emotional – Emotions, safe, personal facts.
Social – Collaborate, self-evaluation, authentic decision making.
Cognitive – Reasoning and deduction skills based on past experiences.
Physical – Active hands-on minds-on learning, not passively following.
Reflective – Makes all other components efficient – by calling upon a subconscious record of past experiences.
Information must connect with all these components to be stored long term. Approaches to learning should 1. touch
emotions and interest 2. be challenging 3. be personally relevant 4. connect with past knowledge 5. and also be
independently complete. First learning must be taking place in a safe environment, as interest leads to fun, with
challenges creating growth.
An efficient approach to learning is a social process that often entertain and is also coordinating an individual ability
to construct the appropriate neural cell assemblies through self-discovery and self-assessment interactions with the
environment.
Warning: human beings have a remarkable capacity to be seduced and taken in by optimistic hope. Human beings
will buy into something, even when nature says you should not. We often overlook great illusions and miss the truth
because of hype. We can become seduced and cynical at the same time, having the hope that this or that may
work. In search of progress learners are often at war with both their common sense and the nature of learning.
Sizzle – Flash – Fashion: What is in fashion this season? Given the wall-to-wall manipulation and hype from the
politics of information, progress or developmental learning has become more difficult than simply reclaiming our
predestined capacity to be a natural and absorbent learner, with a capacity for spontaneous self-assessment.

When there is connection between the nature of learning and the nature of man, it produces individuals who know
what they are up to, long before it looks possible to the rest of the world. Nature and nurture are both responsible
for mankind’s development, but nurture should not be violating nature’s laws. Nature and nurture work as a team.
Nature passes on elements that are then refined, enhanced and added to by nurture, as individuals interact with
their environment. Nature and evolution download only a rough outline, and the outline that genes take on is then
filled in by nurture and the feedback loop that exists between genes and their environments. “Learning-developing”
environments nurture confidence differently than “teaching-fixing” environments.
Confident individuals are engaged, curious, active learners who take risks that transform factual information into
useable “know how” or operational intelligence, all without consciously trying to learn. Note: knowing information is
not the same as having insights into its meaning and using it for a positive outcome. Information that can be used to
make predictions and decisions is more valuable than information that cannot be used for these outcomes.
The Game And Flow Through Learning
Golf is a game, and like all games we play there are some obvious benefits including; spending time outdoors,
having fun, exercising the body in a leisure time activity while enjoying the company of others. Because golf is a
game of solving problems by asking ourselves question about ever-changing environments, there are also some
counterintuitive benefits from learning and playing golf. More than any other sports, golf seems to fully engage
mankind’s higher cortex.
Each time a golfer swings their golf club they are attempting to solve the challenge of a peculiar and unique
circumstances that the golf course presents for every swing. From day one, no two swings have ever been the
same. No two requirements of a golf swing have ever been identical. Before a golfer swings they have asked
themselves questions to evaluate the shot they are about to play. After this evaluation takes place, golfers now go
through their options for creating a successful outcome and chose which one of their 14 clubs they will use. As
golfers become more experiences they also make the choice of what type of ball flight they want to create (high-low
left to right, right to left, straight).
A less obvious benefit of learning and playing golf is that every mental skill a golfer engages during these acts can
be transferred to other learning opportunities in school, businesses, different sports and other walk of life. Mankind
is a creative problem solving being who is learning all the time through indirect preparation and parallel processing,
which are based on our past experiences. New experiences “flow through” and mix with past experiences birthing
new learning that then develops information into new knowledge. For example, when we are not engaged during a
meeting—all the past meetings that we have encoded in our subconscious become less valuable. Being engaged
is normally associated with the present – but it’s our past experiences that unconsciously provide the most valuable
insights.
The physical and mental skills used when learning and playing golf are a form of indirect preparation that
unconsciously flows into other learning environments. These skills include reasoning, decision making, self control,
self discovery, body motions, self assessment, self development, and self learning to name a few.
Acts of learning, like everything else that influences mankind’s body and brain are a biological process that’s
grounded in an individual’s past experiences. Both similar and dissimilar past experiences make up the indirect
preparation for what we are doing and learning in the present. While this may be a counter intuitive insight, it’s an
accurate one.
When individuals are going through the trial and feedback (never failure) of becoming familiar with the design of a
golf club and optimum approaches for using a golf club, many valuable lessons are being encoded that can be
used beyond golf environments. Biologically, (all learning is biological in nature) it is not possible to learn directly
from our experiences in the now. Interactions in the present are being simultaneously cross-referenced with past
experiences (indirect preparation) that guide efficient acts of learning in the now. What is going on in “the now” is
paralleled to and cross-referenced with the patterns, sequences, perceptions, and classifications that are encoded
from what we have experienced in the past. Parallel processing and indirect preparation are at the core of all
learning.


What follows has been influenced by the book Constructivism, edited by Catherine Twomey Fosnot. “Learning
developing” approaches to progress give individuals the opportunity for concrete, contextually meaningful
experiences through which they can search for patterns, raise questions, interpret, model and defend their own
strategies and ideas. These activities of discourse, interpretation, justification, and reflection birth long term
learning.
As givers of information (parents, educators, employers, instructors, coaches) assume more of a facilitators role,
and receivers take on more ownership of their ideas – the traditional hierarchy of a teacher as the autocratic
knower and the student as the un-knower, studying and practicing what the teacher knows fortunately begins to
dissipate. Indeed, autonomy, mutual reciprocity and empowerment become the aim, and self-reliance the goal.
·        Reject the notion that “meaning” can be passed on to learners via symbols and transmission.
·        Reject that learners can incorporate exact copies of a teachers understanding for their own use.
·        Reject that whole concepts can be broken down in discrete sub skills.
·        Reject that concepts can be taught out of context.

When we intend to stimulate and enhance an individuals learning potential, we cannot afford to forget that
knowledge does not exist outside that person’s mind. The structures and patterns that constitute meanings or
knowledge are not entities that could be used alternatively by different individuals. They are constructs that each
user has to build up for him or herself that may be compatible with some of their past experiences.
Developmental learning evaluates a current information base against new or incoming information to construct new
insights. All past experiences influence new learning through the steps of parallel processing. But keep in mind that
students may perceive their environment in ways that may be very different from those intended by their educator.
The words of a teacher do not form meanings for a student.
“One can not hope to accomplish change, without first having some inkling into the concepts, experiences, and the
conceptual relations the student possess at the moment.” (Von Glasersfeld and Steff, 1991) This reality is often
overlooked.
If we take into consideration insights from sound studies about how meanings are actually constructed, and how
linguistic communication works, this would clearly dismantle the wide spread notion that conceptual knowledge
(information that has become operational intelligence) can be transferred from a teacher to a student by means of
words. Words are indeed a powerful tool, but they do not transport meanings, concepts, or know how. Language
can enable the teacher to orient the student’s conceptual construction of meaning by precluding certain pathways
and making others more likely. Guiding and providing individuals with opportunities and incentives to build their own
knowledge is the soul of an efficient approach to progress.
Harvard psychologist Ellen Langer (1997) has launched a major initiative to change classroom education from a
world based on right answers to one based on flexible thinking. She proposes that myths permeate classroom
education that seriously curtails the learning process (APA Monitor, August 1997, p.97). The following is an
adaptation of the list of myths that she challenges:

·        Myth: The basics should be learned so well that they become second nature. Fact: Overlearning stifles
creativity and individual expression.

·        Myth: Paying attention means staying focused on one thing.
Fact: Novelty, as in examining unfamiliar aspects of familiar objects, people, and things, holds attention.

·        Myth: Rote memorization is necessary in education.
Fact: Students who relate material to personal experience do better than memorizers on tests and comprehensions.

·        Myth: Forgetting is a problem.
Fact: Memory can be a straitjacket, preventing the formation of novel uses and applications.

·        Myth: Intelligence is knowing “what’s out there.”
Fact: Lifelong learners, not know-it-alls, are the true experts.

·        Myth: There are right and wrong answers.
Fact: Correctness is dependent on context.

Also, in a masterful summary of the effectiveness of training, Robert Bjork (1994) points out that current research
challenges two traditional—and incorrect—assumptions about training: that training should be relatively risk free
(that is, it should protect the learner from the pain of making errors) and that it should be orderly (with no skipping
around). Bjork and other research argues that simple and orderly learning provides good short-term results, such
as A’s on tests at the end of the course and high marks for the teacher. However, “simple and orderly” learning
does not establish memories that last for the long term. Learners need multiple ways of experiencing a new
concept or skill, and unpredictable opportunities to practice it, in order to understand it and have access to it for the
long term.
Bjork supports this with two storylike experiments. A control group of batters on a California State University
baseball team practiced hitting first fifteen curve balls, then fifteen sliders, then fifteen fastballs. The experimental
group also practiced hitting forty-five pitches, but in random order. The latter group outbatted the group with the
simple and orderly batting practice. In the second experiment, two groups of eight-year-olds practiced throwing
beanbags into a bucket. They were to be tested at a distance of three feet. One group practiced from three feet.
The control group practiced all throws from two feet, and from four feet, and none from three feet. And guess what!
The latter group outperformed the former, even though the experimental group had never had an opportunity to
throw from the distance used in the final test, three feet.